Lecture 1

GEOGRAPHY 2240: Introduction

First we will consider the course outline and schedule. We will discuss arrangements for lab access and other matters relating to the course.

GEOGRAPHY 2240: Objectives

You should learn:

1. How to produce maps
- to illustrate reports and papers

2. How maps are made
- to help understand them (e.g. more sceptical about contours after you have drawn some.)
- to understand their possibilities and limitations

3. Some basic computer graphics skills
- background for other courses in remote sensing, GIS
- preparation of web graphics

Cartography

1. Definition: - The art and science of making maps

2. Art: - Design:
--- (1) aesthetics - for an attractive map
--- (2) functionality - for a useful map
- Creativity
--- cartographers have to follow certain conventions
--- but there is still room for individuality, creativity

3. Science: - Surveying - accurate measurement of location
- Data collection - contents of the map
- Perception - how we extract information from a map

4. History of cartography
- a major area of study itself

Maps

1. Definition:
- "... graphic representations that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes or events...."
- ( from Harley, J.B. and Woodward, D., The History of Cartography, Vol. 1)

- Many textbooks give inadequate definitions, biased towards modern geographic maps.

2. Plans and charts: - No different from maps.
--- Plan - usually refers to a map of a small object like a building, room or even a machine.
--- Chart - usually refers to a map used for navigation.
- but they are both just types of map. The distinction is arbitrary and unnecessary.

Coordinates

Location on the Earth

1. Coordinate Reference Points - Earth is nearly spherical (within 0.5%).
- Assume it is a perfect sphere.
- Earth rotates around its axis of rotation.
--- Main reference line for coordinates.
- Meets surface at north and south poles.
- Equator defined by plane perpendicular to axis, passing through the planet's centre.

2. Latitude - Angular distance north or south from equator to poles.
- GEOCENTRIC LATITUDE = angle between the equatorial plane and a radius (centre of Earth to a point).
- GEOGRAPHIC LATITUDE = angle between the equatorial plane and vertical line at a point.

3. Longitude - Measured east or west from a meridian (line from pole to pole).
- International convention: prime meridian runs through the Greenwich Observatory in London, England.
- Measure 180 degrees to East and West (rarely: 360 degrees around the globe, east from the prime meridian).
- Two angles, latitude N or S of the equator and longitude E or W from the prime meridian, define a position on the globe.

Location on a map

1. Latitude and longitude. - grid drawn on map or marked along the edges.
- e.g. a point is at 45 degrees, 50 minutes 22 seconds north, and 78 degrees, 20 minutes, 10 seconds west.
--- written as: 45^o 50' 22" N, 78^o 20' 10" W ------------(this is in Algonquin Park)

Check out this link for more information:

http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Slatlong.htm

2. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid (military grid).

- Universal: covers the whole world.
- Transverse Mercator: map projection it is based on.
- Square grid, 1 km spacing.
- Drawn in long narrow strips (zones) - total of 60 zones.
- each zone covers 80^o N to 80^o S, only 6^o of longitude wide.
- Poles mapped separately with a grid centred on the pole.

Check this link for more information:

https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9779

3. Grid reference:
- like stating x-y coordinates on a graph.
- edges of map are labelled like axes of a graph
(a) give EASTING - distance in east-west direction, estimated to a tenth of a grid square (100 m for a 1 km grid).
(b) give NORTHING - distance north-south estimated to 1/10 square.
--- example: 43.7 easting, 55.3 northing, written as 437553

But note that this is an abbreviated grid reference, just used for convenience. 100 km north or east of here would be another place with the same numbers. The FULL reference avoids this - see link below. A full grid reference tells us which zone we are in and gives unambiguous coordinates, as in the linked example.

Check this link for more information:

https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9785

4. Arbitrary grid of letters or numbers.
- Common on street maps.