Today’s Lecture
•	Administrative stuff
•	Really beginning the Upanishads
Administrative stuff
•	The Bookstore assures me that the new order of Koller texts has arrived.
•	I have graded the quizzes. I owe you an apology for the appearance of your submissions. I was caught in the rain yesterday and discovered, after the fact, that my bag is not very water-proof. The discoloration of your submissions is the result of a rain soaked inter-campus mail envelope … though it may look like something else.
•	Good job on this first quiz.
Upanishads and the Vedas
•	Remember that the Upanishads consist of reflections on that which underlies, or underpins, Vedic religious thought and practice (including Vedic sacrificial ritual) (Koller, Asian Philosophies, pp.5, 19-20).
•	The principal Upanishads (i.e. the early Upanishads) are often viewed as the end (vedanta) of the Vedas (a ‘cap’ as it were on the Aranyakas [or Forest Treatises], which are, in turn, a ‘cap’ on the Brahmanas [or Commentaries]).  
Note for future reference
•	A number of scholars point to the emergence of the Upanishads as the beginnings of a move away from the traditional Vedic Religion. 
•	The early (or principal) Upanishads, it is believed, were being formulated at or around the same time as an adoption of a hierarchical stratification of Indian society based upon the Varnas. The Varnadharma, as it is now known, does not stand alone, however. Along with an adoption of this social hierarchy we find the emergence of doctrines concerning rebirth and karma. 
•	Why might a social hierarchy and the doctrines of rebirth and karma arise together? Think along the lines of ‘getting one’s just desert’ and being reborn.
Note for future reference
•	Some of these same scholars see this move away from the traditional Vedic Religion as a revival (of sorts) of some of the pre-Aryan/non-Aryan traditions. (More details on the Varnadharma, rebirth and karma to come).
•	Think of the references to Aryan culture as references to, at the very least, the emergence of a culture hitherto not dominant in the North-West sub-continent in and around 1500 B.C.E.
Upanishads
•	The term ‘upanishad’ comes from the words: sad – ‘to sit’; upa – ‘near’; ni – ‘down’ (John Grimes. 1996. A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy. (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press), p.329).  
•	This implies that the teaching requires a disciple – guru relationship … something you won’t find in this class (or in a class environment in general).
•	These texts, then, can be understood as containing secret teaching. 
•	This means that there are at least two layers to the text: a surface meaning and a deeper meaning that requires the direction of a guru (or teacher). 
Upanishads – the questions
•	Two questions inform much of the discussion in the Upanishads: 
•	(1) What is the underlying fundamental essence, nature or ground of objects or events in the world (or ‘outer reality’)? 
•	(2) What is the underlying fundamental essence, nature or ground of the self (or ‘inner reality’)? (Koller, Asian Philosophies, p.20.) 
•	How might we relate these questions related?
•	Think of it this way: I’m in your outer world, but I have an ‘inner world’ (in which you are in my outer world). 
Upanishads – the questions
•	It gets even more interesting.
•	In deep meditation, Hindu practitioners often claim that they move beyond conceptual thought, beyond the duality of ‘me and that’, or subject and object (see Koller’s discussion on pages 21-23 of Asian Philosophies).
•	IF such a state exists, and admittedly this is a big ‘if’, then what will be the perception of That Which Is?
•	Will this yield a universal claim about Reality or only one limited or indexed to your own subjective experience? Before you answer, remember that, IF such a state exists, in that state there is no objective-subjective contrast.
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	Remember that there are two prominent sources of knowledge for Upanishadic philosophers: (1) Vedic scriptures and (2) meditation (Koller, Asian Philosophies, pp.19-20).
•	To defend their views Upanishadic philosophers tend to point to one or the other of these sources of knowledge (Koller, Asian Philosophies, p.20).
•	You need to distinguish the defense of their views from their explication. In explicating their views, Upanishadic philosophers use stories, myth and common experience.
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	In evaluating the overall epistemic value of claims made in Upanishadic philosophy you need to give some thought to the evaluation of scriptural authority and meditation, AS WELL AS the form this evaluation will take regarding either putative source of knowledge.
•	What is it for a body of scriptures to be rightly regarded as authoritative?
•	Are there objective criteria (or criteria that will survive philosophical criticism) for infallibility?
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	Do note Koller’s comments (on page 20 of your Asian Philosophies) that at least one accepted formal criterion of testing the truth of putative claims of knowledge, accepted by the Upanishadic philosophers, is whether the claims are internally consistent/coherent. 
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	We can look for internal inconsistencies or even coherence with known truths, but even if such inquiries yield results that make us disposed to trust some of the relevant scriptural passages, it may be the case that matters lying outside of verifiable fact or truth are falsely presented within the relevant texts.
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	Can we think of prima facie (or initial) reasons to think that meditation may well be a source of knowledge?
•	Think of introspection or memory, and the contexts in which we think they may yield true beliefs.
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	With either source of knowledge we tend to think that such matters as careful attentiveness, critical self-awareness, and a measured degree of skepticism (a recognition that we may be wrong) should be present when making knowledge claims.
•	But careful attentiveness and critical self-awareness are virtues to be also cultivated by practitioners of meditation. Only when these virtues are properly cultivated are our observations during meditation to enjoy a (to-be-specified) degree of epistemic value.
Upanishads – underlying theory of knowledge
•	Two worries about regarding meditation as a source of knowledge: (i) It is not infallible and (ii) may not yield ‘unique knowledge’ (or knowledge that can only be gained through the relevant meditation technique), unlike, say, perception or reason.
•	Re (i): Neither introspection nor memory are infallible. Indeed both are open to manipulation and distortion (think of false consciousness or false memory).
•	Re (ii): It is not clear that memory yields knowledge only to be gained through that ‘faculty’.
Upanishads - Brahman as all-embracing reference
•	The word ‘brahman’ was originally used to talk about (the power underlying) a Vedic prayer (as contained in the Rig Veda) or spell (as contained in the Atharva Veda). 
•	Its meaning undergoes a change when it is used to speak of (the power underlying) all the utterances contained in Vedic Ritual or in the Vedas. 
•	The change to such an emphasis corresponds to the change in direction of Vedic religion mentioned before AND a growing concern to understand the causal connection between language/word/sound and success in Vedic ritual (Koller, Asian Philosophies, p.20).